🔥🔥🔥 James K. Polk Dbq Essay

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James Polk ***

Francisco Franco. Controlled the rightist forces during the Spanish Civil War. His fascist government ruled Spain from until Franklin Pierce. Democrat, served as president of the United States from to Pierce was the last president until to win the popular and electoral vote in both the North and South. Pierce was little more than a caretaker of the White House in the years leading up to the Civil War. Frederick Douglass. Perhaps the most famous of all abolitionists. An escaped slave, Douglass worked closely withWilliam Lloyd Garrison to promote abolitionism in the s. Freedmen's Bureau. Established in and staffed by Union army officers.

The Freedmen's Bureau worked to protect black rights in the South and to provide employment, medical care, and education to Southern blacks. Freedom ride. A program, led by the Congress of Racial Equality and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, in which black and white members of the two organizations rode through the South on public buses to protest illegal segregation in interstate transportation.

Freeport Doctrine. Democrat Stephen A. Douglas's attempt to reconcile his belief in popular sovereignty with the Dred Scott decision. In the famed Lincoln-Douglas debates of , Douglas argued that territories could effectively forbid slavery by failing to enact slave codes, even though the Dred Scott decision deprived government of the right to restrict slavery in the territories. Free-Soil Party. A political party supporting abolition. It was formed from the merger of a northern faction of the Democratic Party, the abolitionist Liberty Party, and antislavery Whigs.

The relative success of the Free-Soil Party demonstrated that slavery had become a central issue in national politics. French and Indian War. English colonists and soldiers fought the French and their Native American allies for dominance in North America. England's eventual victory brought England control of much disputed territory and eliminated the French as a threat to English dominance in the Americas. Fugitive Slave Act. Passed in and strengthened as part of the Compromise of The act allowed Southerners to send posses into Northern soil to retrieve runaway slaves. During the early s, Northerners mounted resistance to the act by aiding escaping slaves and passing personal liberty laws.

Emerged in the early s as a reaction to the many scientific and social challenges facing conservative American Protestantism. Protestant fundamentalists insisted upon the divine inspiration and absolute truth of the Bible, and sought to discredit or censure those who questioned the tenets of Protestant faith. Fundamentalism peaked in the s with the anti-evolution movement, culminating in the Scopes Monkey Trial.

Gag rule. Passed by Southerners in Congress in The gag rule tabled all abolitionist petitions in Congress and thereby prevented antislavery discussions. The gag rule was repealed in , under increased pressure from Northern abolitionists and those concerned with the rule's restriction of the right to petition. George Armstrong Custer. A Civil War hero. Custer was dispatched to the hills of South Dakota in to fight off Native American threats. When gold was discovered in the region, the federal government announced that Custer's forces would hunt down all Sioux not in reservations beginning January 31, Many Sioux refused to comply, and Custer mobilized his troops. George Bush. Republican, vice president to Ronald Reagan and president of the United States from to His presidency was marked by economic recession and U.

George Washington. First president of the United States. Commander in chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution, Washington led the Continentals to victory. A Federalist, he supported Alexander Hamilton's economic campaign. Washington officially resigned from office in after serving two terms in office, establishing an unofficial policy that presidents serve no more than two terms in office. Gerald Ford. Vice president to Nixon after Spiro Agnew. Ford took over the presidency after the Watergate scandal forced Nixon to resign on August 9, Ford pardoned Nixon and pushed a conservative domestic policy, but was little more than a caretaker of the White House until his defeat in the election of Gettysburg Address. Delivered on November 19, , at the dedication of a cemetery for casualties of the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln's speech recast the war as a historic test of the ability of a democracy to survive.

Gibbons v. A devoted Federalist, Chief Justice Marshall ruled that the states could not interfere with Congress's right to regulate interstate commerce. Good Neighbor Policy. FDR's policy toward Latin America, initialized in He pledged that no nation, not even the U. Gospel of Success. Justification for the growing gap between rich and poor during the Industrial Revolution. Writers like Horatio Alger incorporated this ideology into their work. The Patrons of Husbandry, known as the Grange.

The Grange also represented farmers' needs in dealings with big business and the federal government. Great Debate. An eight-month discussion in Congress over Henry Clay's proposed compromise to admit California as a free state, allow the remainder of the Mexican cession Utah and New Mexico territories to be decided by popular sovereignty, and strengthen the Fugitive Slave Act. Clay's solution was passed as separate bills, which together came to be known as the Compromise of Great Society.

Lyndon B. Johnson's program for domestic policy. The Great Society aimed to achieve racial equality, end poverty, and improve health-care. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Passed by the Senate in following questionable reports of a naval confrontation between North Vietnamese and U. The resolution granted President Johnson broad wartime powers without explicitly declaring war. Gulf War. In January , the U. In late February, U.

A total of Americans died in the war, compared to over , Iraqi deaths. Writer who satirized political leaders and American society in the s. Mencken's magazine American Mercury served as the journalistic counterpart to the postwar disillusionment of the lost generation. Harlem Renaissance. The flowering of black culture in New York's Harlem neighborhood during the s. Black writers and artists produced plays, poetry, and novels that often reflected the unique African American experience in America and in Northern cities in particular. Harpers Ferry. Twenty-one men seized a federal arsenal in a failed attempt to incite a slave rebellion. Brown was caught and hanged. Harriet Tubman.

A former slave who helped establish the Underground Railroad, a network of safehouses and escorts throughout the North to help escaped slaves to freedom. Harry S. Truman served until Truman ordered the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and he proved instrumental in committing the U. At home, Truman attempted to extend the New Deal policies of his predecessor in what he called the Fair Deal. Hartford Convention. A meeting of Federalists near the end of the War of , in which the New England-based party enumerated its complaints against the ruling Republican Party. The Federalists, already losing power steadily, hoped that antiwar sentiment would lead the nation to support their cause and return them to power. Perceived victory in the war, however, turned many against the Federalists, whose actions in Hartford were labeled traitorous and antagonistic to the unity and cooperation of the Union.

Hayes-Tilden Compromise. Resolved the conflict arising from the election of , in which Democrat Samuel J. Tilden won the popular vote but Republican leaders contested some states' election returns, thereby ensuring Republican Rutherford B. Hayes's victory. To minimize protest from the Democratic Party, Republicans agreed to end Reconstruction by removing federal troops from the last two occupied states in the South. Haymarket riot.

The rally became violent after someone threw a bomb, killing seven policemen and prompting a police backlash. After the riot, leaders of the Knights of Labor were arrested and imprisoned, and public support for the union cause plunged. Helsinki Accords. Signed in by Gerald Ford, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, and the leaders of thirty-one other states in a promise to solidify European boundaries, respect human rights, and permit freedom of travel. Henry Cabot Lodge. Lodge and his followers supported U. President Wilson, however, refused to compromise, and the treaty was rejected. Henry Clay. Clay engineered and championed the American System, a program aimed at economic self-sufficiency for the nation.

As speaker of the house during Monroe's term in office, he was instrumental in crafting much of the legislation that passed through Congress. A gifted negotiator, Clay helped resolve the Missouri Compromise of and designed the Compromise of and Compromise of He led the Whig Party until his death in Henry David Thoreau. A prominent transcendentalist writer. Two of his most famous writings are Civil Disobedience and Walden Thoreau advocated living life according to one's conscience, removed from materialism and repressive social codes. Henry Hudson. In , Hudson sailed up the river than now bears his name, nearly reaching present-day Albany. His explorations gave the Dutch territorial claims to the Hudson Bay region.

Henry Kissinger. National security adviser and, later, secretary of state under President Nixon. Herbert Hoover. President from to , during the stock market collapse and the height of the Great Depression. He did, however, set the stage for many future New Deal measures. Herman Melville. A prominent American fiction writer in the s and s. His best-known novel is Moby-Dick A Japanese city that was site of the first-ever atomic bomb attack. On August 6, , the U. The Nazis' systematic persecution and extermination of European Jews from until More than 6 million Jews died in concentration camps throughout Germany and Nazi-occupied territory. Homestead Act. Homestead strike. Federal troops were called in to suppress the violence.

Communities of destitute Americans living in shanties and makeshift shacks. Hoovervilles sprung up around most major U. Horace Mann. Appointed secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education in Mann reformed the public school system by increasing state spending on schools, lengthening the school year, dividing the students into grades, and introducing standardized textbooks. Mann set the standard for public school reform throughout the nation. Horatio Alger. Author of popular young adult novels, such as Ragged Dick, during the Industrial Revolution. House of Burgesses. Established in Jamestown, Virginia, in The House of Burgesses is considered to be the New World's first representative government.

It consisted of 22 representatives from 11 districts of colonists. During McCarthyism, provided the congressional forum in which many hearings about suspected communists in the government took place. Huey Long. His passionate orations won him as many followers as enemies: he was assassinated in September of at the capitol building in Baton Rouge. Hull House. An early settlement house founded in Chicago in by Jane Addams.

Hull House provided education, health care, and employment aid to poor families. During the s, a British policy whereby the British boarded American ships in search of British naval deserters, whom they would force impress back into service. Often naturalized or native-born Americans were also seized, provoking outrage in America. Impressment was one of a string of British violations against U. Indentured servitude. Some immigrants came willingly, while others were manipulated and kidnapped; often, the indentured servents were never able to secure their release due to debt. The first Africans brought to the colonies were also indentured servants, but in the seventeenth century, as massive, labor-intensive tobacco plantations spread throughout the South, slavery became the preferred means of labor.

Independent Treasury Bill. Signed into law in The bill established an independent treasury to hold public funds in reserve and prevent excessive lending by state banks, thus guarding against inflation. The Independent Treasury Bill was a response to the panic of , which many blamed on the risky and excessive lending practices of state banks. Indian Removal Act. Granted Jackson the funds and authority to move Native Americans to assigned lands in the West. Passed in , the Indian Removal Act primarily targeted the Cherokee tribe in Georgia as part of the federal government's broad plan to claim Native American lands inside the boundaries of the states.

Industrial Workers of the World Wobblies. A radical labor organization founded in The IWW advocated revolution and massive societal reorganization. The organization faded away around The increase of available paper money and bank credit, leading to higher prices and less-valuable currency. Interstate Commerce Act. The Interstate Commerce Act forbade price discrimination and other monopolistic practices of the railroads. Intolerable Acts. Passed in , the Intolerable Acts were seen as the blueprints for a British plan to deny the Americans representative government and were the impetus for the convening of the First Continental Congress.

Iran-Contra affair. A series of investigations in exposed evidence that the U. The Contras were a rebel group fighting against the communist-linked Sandinista regime in Nicaragua. There was no proof that Ronald Reagan was aware of North's actions. Iron curtain. This area was cut off from noncommunist Europe. Edgar Hoover. Head of the FBI from until his death in He aggressively investigated suspected subversives during the Cold War.

Robert Oppenheimer. Head of the Manhattan Project, the secret American operation to develop the atomic bomb. A Wall Street financier and business leader during the era of industrialization. In , Morgan bought Carnegie Steel and established the world's first billion-dollar corporation, U. Steel Corporation. Jacques Cartier. A French sailor who explored the St. Lawrence River region between and Cartier searched for a Northwest Passage, a waterway through which ships could cross the Americas and access Asia. He found no such passage but opened the region up to future exploration and colonization by the French. James Buchanan. A moderate Democrat with support from both the North and South who served as president of the United States from to Buchanan could not stem the tide of sectional conflict that eventually erupted into Civil War.

James Fenimore Cooper. An influential American writer in the early nineteenth century. James K. A firm believer in expansion, Polk led the U. Many Northerners saw Polk as an agent of Southern will aiming to expand the nation in order to extend slavery into the West. James Madison. Madison began his political career as a Federalist, joining forces with Alexander Hamilton during the debate over the Constitution.

He was one of the authors of The Federalist Papers and a staunch advocate of strong central government. Madison later became critical of excessive power in central government and left the Federalist Party to join Thomas Jefferson in leading the Republican Party. James Monroe. President from until His presidency was at the core of the Era of Good Feelings, characterized by a one-party political system, an upsurge of American nationalism, and Monroe's own efforts to avoid political controversy and conflict.

Jane Addams. A reformer and pacifist best known for founding Hull House in Hull House provided educational services to poor immigrants. Jay's Treaty. While the American public criticized the treaty for favoring Britain, it was arguably the greatest diplomatic feat of the Washington administration, since it preserved peace with Britain. Jazz Age. Nickname for the s due to the development and flourishing of jazz music, as well as the highly publicized if exaggerated accounts of wild parties, drinking, and dancing. Jefferson Davis. Former secretary of war, Davis was elected president of the Confederacy shortly after its formation. Davis was never able to garner adequate public support and faced great difficulties in uniting the Confederate states under one central authority.

Jim Crow laws. State laws that institutionalized segregation in the South from the s through the s. Along with segregating schools, buses, and other public accommodations, these laws made it difficult or impossible for Southern blacks to vote. Jimmy Carter. Democratic president of the United States from to Carter is best known for his commitment to human rights. During his term in office, he faced an oil crisis, a weak economy, and severe tension in the Middle East. John Adams. America's second president, Adams served from to A Federalist, he supported a powerful centralized government.

His most notable actions in office were the undertaking of the Quasi-war with France and the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts. John Brown. A religious zealot and an extreme abolitionist who believed God had ordained him to end slavery. In , he led an attack against pro-slavery government officials in Kansas, killing five and sparking months of violence that earned the territory the name Bleeding Kansas. He was caught and hanged.

John C. Calhoun served as James Monroe's secretary of war, as John Quincy Adams's vice president, and then as Andrew Jackson's vice president for one term. A firm believer in states' rights, Calhoun clashed with Jackson over many issues, most notably nullification. John Cabot. John F. Democrat, served as president from until his assassination in November A young and charismatic leader, Kennedy cultivated a glorified image in the eyes of the American public. His primary achievements came in the realm of international relations, most notably the peaceful resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis. John Jay. One of the authors of The Federalist Papers.

Jay was instrumental in the drafting of the Constitution. John Marshall. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from until his death in Under Marshall's leadership, the Court became as powerful a federal force as the executive and legislative branches. Marshall's most notable decision came in the Marbury v. Madison case, in which he asserted the principle of judicial review. During James Monroe's presidency, Marshall delivered two rulings that curtailed states' rights and exposed the latent conflicts in the Era of Good Feelings.

John Quincy Adams. Son of John Adams and president from to As James Monroe's secretary of state, Adams worked to expand the nation's borders and authored the Monroe Doctrine. His presidency was largely ineffective due to lack of popular support; Congress blocked many of his proposed programs. John Smith. Saved the Jamestown colony from collapse in , its first year of existence. Smith's initiatives improved sanitation, hygiene, and organized work gangs to gather food and build shelters, thereby dramatically lowering the mortality rates among Jamestown colonists.

John Steinbeck. Major American author in the s. Steinbeck's novels depict simple, rural lives. His most famous work is The Grapes of Wrath John Tyler. Became president of the United States in , when William Henry Harrison died after one month in office. John Winthrop. Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony. Winthrop was instrumental in forming the colony's government and shaping its legislative policy.

Joint Chiefs of Staff. Created by FDR in February to oversee the rapidly growing military. The Joint Chiefs included representatives from the army, navy, and air force. Joint-stock companies. Formed in the absence of support from the British Crown, joint-stock companies accrued funding for colonization through the sale of public stock. These companies dominated English colonization throughout the seventeenth century. Joseph Pulitzer. Though the World was the slightly more reputable of the two papers, both engaged in yellow journalism, exaggerating facts and sensationalizing stories about the Spanish-American War.

Joseph Stalin. Dictator of the Soviet Union from until Judicial review. Madison The principle of judicial review held that the Supreme Court could declare an act of Congress unconstitutional. Judiciary Act of Created the American court system. The act established a federal district court in each state and gave the Supreme Court final jurisdiction in all legal matters. Kansas-Nebraska Act. The act divided the Nebraska territory into two parts, Kansas and Nebraska, and left the issue of slavery in the territories to be decided by popular sovereignty. King George III. Colonists were torn between loyalty to the king and resistance to acts carried out in his name. Kitchen Cabinet. Jackson's presidential cabinet, dubbed so because the members were his close political allies and many had questionable political skill.

Instead of serving as a policy forum to help shape the president's agenda, as previous cabinets had done, Jackson's cabinet assumed a mostly passively supportive role. Knights of Labor. One of the first major labor organizations in the U. The Knights fell into decline after one of several leaders was executed for killing a policeman in the Haymarket riot of Know-Nothing Party. The American Party. The Know-Nothings took the place of the Whig Party between and , after the latter's demise. They focused on issues of antislavery, anti-Catholicism, nativism, and temperance. The party collapsed during the latter half of the s, in part because of the rise of the Republican Party. Korean War. Without asking for a declaration of war, Truman committed U.

Limited fighting continued until June , when an armistice restored the prewar border between North and South Korea. Korematsu v. The camps operated until March A southern vigilante group founded in in Tennessee. By , the Klan operated in all Southern states. The group often conducted raids and lynchings to intimidate black voters and Republican officials. The Klan faded away in the late nineteenth century, but resurfaced in Capitalizing on middle-class Protestant dismay at changing social and economic conditions in America, the Klan took root throughout the South as well as in Western and Midwestern cities, and was dominated by white native-born Protestants. Membership and influence declined again in , when corruption among Klan leaders was exposed.

League of Nations. Woodrow Wilson's idea for a collective security body meant to provide a forum for the resolution of conflict and to prevent future world wars. The League's covenant was written into the Treaty of Versailles. Senate, however, voted against joining the League, making it a weak international force. Leif Ericson. Lend-Lease Act. Passed in March Lend-lease was extended to Russia in November after Germany invaded Russia. Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer. A series of twelve letters published by John Dickinson. The letters denounced the Townshend Duties by demonstrating that many of the arguments employed against the Stamp Act were valid against the Townshend Duties as well. The letters inspired anti-British sentiment throughout the colonies.

Lewis and Clark. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. The two were commissioned by Thomas Jefferson to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase. They traveled 3, miles between and , collecting scientific data and specimens and charting the territory to the west of the Mississippi. Their journey spurred national interest in exploration and settlement of the West. Liberal Republicans. Formed in when a faction split from the ranks of the Republican Party in opposition to President Ulysses S. Many Liberals argued that the task of Reconstruction was complete and should be put aside.

Their defection served a major blow to the Republican Party and shattered what congressional enthusiasm remained for Reconstruction. Limited Test-Ban Treaty. Lincoln-Douglas Debates. A series of seven debates held from August 21 and October 15, between senatorial candidates, the debates pitted Abraham Lincoln, a free-soil Republican, against Stephen A. Douglas, a Democrat in favor of popular sovereignty. The debates were hard-fought, highly attended, and ultimately inconclusive, but they crystallized the dominant positions of the North in regard to slavery and propelled Lincoln into the national arena. Loose constructionists. The core of the Federalist Pary, led by Alexander Hamilton.

Lost generation. A small but prominent circle of writers, poets, and intellectuals during the s. Artists like Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Ezra Pound grew disillusioned with America's postwar culture, finding it overly materialistic and spiritually void. Many became expatriates, and their writings often expressed their disgust with America. Louisiana Purchase. Territory purchased from Napolean by the U. The Louisiana Purchase nearly doubled the size of the nation and opened the West to exploration and settlement. But the new aquisition also caused strife: border disputes with foreign powers as well as congressional debates over the admission of new states from the region whether the states would be slave-holding or free.

The sinking of the Lusitania prompted President Woodrow Wilson to plan for a military buildup, and encouraged American alliance with Britain and France in opposition to Germany. Kennedy's vice president until Kennedy's assassination made him president in He stayed in office until , when he declined to seek reelection. Johnson is best known for his attempts to enact his Great Society program at home and his decision to commit troops to Vietnam. Machine politics. The means by which political parties during the Industrial Revolution controlled candidates and voters through networks of loyalty and corruption.

In machine politics, party bosses exploited their ability to give away jobs and benefits patronage in exchange for votes. Macon's Bill No. James Madison's ploy to induce either Britain or France to lift trade restrictions. Under the bill, U. Though later investigations suggested that an onboard fire had caused the blast, popular rumor was that the Spanish were responsible. The sinking of the Maine, combined with sensationalist news reports of Spanish atrocities, led the American public to push for war against Spain. Malcolm X. A major advocate of Black Power who helped lead the Nation of Islam to national prominence. In , Malcolm X was assassinated after a well-publicized break with the Nation of Islam over his newfound dedication to cross-cultural unity.

Manhattan Project. A secret American scientific initiative to develop the atomic bomb. Scientists worked for almost three years in Los Alamos, New Mexico, and on July 16, succeeded in detonating the first atomic blast. Manifest destiny. The belief of many Americans in the mid-nineteenth century that it was the nation's destiny and duty to expand and conquer the West. Journalist John L. Mao Zedong. Marbury v. In this case, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Judiciary Act of was unconstitutional because Congress had overstepped its bounds in granting the Supreme Court the power to issue a writ of mandamus an ultimatum from the court to any officer of the United States.

This ruling established the principle of judicial review. March Against Death. In November , , people marched in a long, circular path through Washington, D. The march was a high point in the student antiwar movement and a poignant symbol of antiwar sentiment in the United States. Marcus Garvey. A powerful African American leader during the s. Garvey was convicted of fraud in and deported to Jamaica in Mark Twain. A leading literary figure during the Industrial Age. Marshall Plan. A four-year plan begun in to provide American aid for the economic reconstruction of Europe. Martin Luther King Jr.

A prominent Civil Rights leader who rose to fame during the Montgomery bus boycott. Throughout the late s and early s, King tirelessly led the struggle for integration and equality through nonviolent means. He was assassinated in Martin Van Buren. Beset by the panic of and unable to win over Jackson's opposition, the Whigs, Van Buren lost his bid for reelection in The ship that carried the Pilgrims across the Atlantic, from the Netherlands to Plymouth Plantation in , after intially fleeing England.

Mayflower Compact. Often cited as the first example of self-government in the Americas. The extreme anticommunism in American politics and society during the early s. The term derives from the actions of Senator Joseph McCarthy, who led an intense campaign against alleged subversives during this period. McCulloch v. The ruling asserted that the federal government wielded supreme power in its sphere and that no states could interfere with the exercise of federal powers. The ruling angered many Republicans, who favored states' rights. McKinley Tariff. Raised protective tariffs by nearly 50 percent in , the highest in U.

Meat Inspection Act. Medical Care Act. An element of President Johnson's Great Society program. The Medical Care Act created Medicare and Medicaid to provide senior citizens and welfare recipients with health care. Theory of trade which stresses that a nation's economic strength depends on exporting more than it imports. Mexican War. Tension between the U. In , after Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande, the U.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war and granted the U. Mikhail Gorbachev. The last Soviet political leader. He helped ease tension between the U. He oversaw the fall of the Soviet Union and resigned as president on December 25, Millard Fillmore. Vice president to Zachary Taylor until Taylor's death in Fillmore took over as president and served out the remainder of Taylor's term, until He helped to push the Compromise of through Congress.

The nickname given to local militiamen who fought against the British during the Revolutionary War. Missouri Compromise. Resolved the conflict surrounding the admission of Missouri to the Union as either a slave or free state. The Missouri Compromise of made Missouri a slave state, admitted Maine as a free state, and prohibited slavery in the remainder of the Louisiana Territory. Monroe Doctrine. Issued by President Monroe in December The doctrine asserted that the Americas were no longer open to European colonization or influence, and paved the way for U. The church's core tenets derive from the Book of Mormon, a book of revelation similar to the Bible.

Led by Smith, the Mormons moved steadily westward during the early s, seeking to escape religious persecution. After Smith was murdered in , a new leader, Brigham Young, led the Mormons to Utah, where they settled and are still centered today. Investigative journalists who worked during the early s to expose the corruption in American industry and politics. Their writings and publications encouraged widespread political and social reform. Munich Pact. A agreement between Britain, France, Italy, and Germany. Intended to appease Hitler and avoid war, the pact only emboldened him further. Cold War policy, developed in the s, that acknowledged that both the U. MAD policy hoped to prevent outright war with the Soviet Union on the premise that any attack would lead to the complete destruction of both powers.

The site of the second U. Nagasaki was devastated by a nuclear blast on August 9, The explosion caused 40, immediate deaths and 60, injuries. Nathaniel Hawthorne. Early American fiction writer. His most famous work, The Scarlet Letter , explored the moral dilemmas of adultery in a Puritan community. Established in by a group of African Americans led byW. Du Bois who joined with white reformers. National Conservation Commission.

Created in by Theodore Roosevelt. The National Conservation Commission aimed to achieve more efficient and responsible management of the nation's resources. National Defense Act. Passed in June The National Defense Act called for the buildup of military forces in anticipation of war and was largely a response to German threats to American neutrality. National Labor Relations Act. Popularly known as the Wagner Act.

The National Labor Relations Act of provided a framework for collective bargaining. It granted workers the right to join unions and bargain, and forbade employers from discriminating against unions. The act demonstrated FDR's support for labor needs and unionization. Formed in NOW was a central part of the s women's liberation movement. The organization lobbied Congress for equal rights, initiated lawsuits, and raised public awareness of women's issues. National Origins Act. This law severely restricted immigration from southern and eastern Europe, and excluded Asians entirely.

Perhaps the most important element of the first New Deal, the NRA established a forum in which business and government officials met to set regulations for fair competition. These regulations bound industry from until , when the Supreme Court declared the NRA unconstitutional. National Republican Party. The National Republicans were one of the two new political parties that emerged in the late s to challenge the dominant Republican Party.

The National Republican Party found its core support in the industrial Northeast. During Jackson's second term in office, the party reconfigured into the Whig Party. National War Labor Board. Monitored and regulated the efforts of organized labor during World War II. Although the board restricted wage increases, it encouraged the extension of many fringe benefits to American workers. Navigation Acts. The acts restricted trade between England and the colonies to English or colonial ships; required certain colonial goods to pass through England or Scotland before being exported to foreign nations; provided subsidies for the production of certain raw goods in the colonies; and banned the colonists from competing with the English in large-scale manufacturing.

Neutrality Acts. Passed by Congress between and The acts made arms sales to warring countries illegal and forbade American citizens to travel aboard the ships of belligerent nations in an effort to keep the U. New Deal. New England Confederation. The colonists formed the alliance without the English crown's authorization. New freedom. Woodrow Wilson's approach to foreign relations. New Frontier. Kennedy's domestic policy. New Jersey Plan. Presented at the Constitutional Convention as an alternative to the Virginia Plan. The New Jersey Plan proposed a unicameral Congress with equal representation for each state.

New Look. Eisenhower's Cold War strategy, preferring deterrence to ground force involvement, and emphasizing the massive retaliatiory potential of a large nuclear stockpile. Eisenhower worked to increase nuclear spending and decrease spending on ground troops. Nineteenth Amendment. Ratified in August The Nineteenth Amendment granted women the right to vote. Nixon Doctrine. Announced in July as a corollary to Nixon's efforts to pull American troops out of Vietnam, the Nixon Doctrine pledged a change in the U.

Non-Intercourse Act. After the repeal of the Embargo Act, this law restricted trade with Britain and France only, opening up trade with all other foreign ports. Passed by a narrow margin in Congress in November President Bill Clinton championed this and other efforts to integrate the U. Formed in to counter the Soviet threat in Eastern Europe. NATO members agreed to be a part of a unified coalition in the event of an attack on one of the nations.

Northwest Ordinance. Defined the process by which new states could be admitted into the Union from the Northwest Territory. The ordinance forbade slavery in the territory but allowed citizens to vote on the legality of slavery once statehood had been established. Nullification Crisis. These NCO's were responsible for discipline of the soldiers and maintaining a limited record of individuals. Their salaries came from the royal treasuries, alongside occasional supplementation by private contributions of prominent individuals. While the terms pardos, mulatos, negros and morenos were commonly used under the caste system that was in place during this era, their use in this context is much more complex and who exactly qualified as who was a very fluid process, dependent on the social context of the time and place.

Free-colored soldiers refused to leave their posts and they dispatched to the capital in protests to defend their racially integrated organizations. This later inspired the communities other free-colored people to protests what they saw as other aggressions by the government, such as increasing tribute burdens. While some of the previous examples are historical, the current official view on the existence of such militias in Mexico, when they are not backed by the government, [60] has been to always label them as illegal and to combat them in a military and a political way.

Modern examples on the Mexican view on militias are the Chiapas conflict against the EZLN [62] and against the EPR in Guerrero, [63] where the government forces combated the upraised militias. And in a more recent case when civilian self-defence militias appeared during the Mexican war on drugs, [64] the government regulated them and transformed the militias in to Rural federal forces , [65] and those who resisted were combated and imprisoned. From the Treaty of Waitangi in until small detachments of British Imperial troops based in New Zealand were the only military.

This changed as a result of the Flagstaff War , [67] with the colonial government passing a Militia Act on 25 March Service in the militia was compulsory. Many localized militia saw service, together with British Imperial troops, during the New Zealand Wars. In the late nineteenth century a system of local Volunteer militias evolved throughout the country. These were semi-trained but uniformed and administered by a small number of regular "Imperial" officers. Militias have played an important role supporting Pakistan's Military since the Indo-Pakistani War of when Pakistan, with the support of militias, was able to gain control of parts of the region of Kashmir.

Currently Pakistani citizens forming militias from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province are participating in the 'war on terror'. Article XVI, Section 4 of the Philippines Constitution states: "The Armed Forces of the Philippines shall be composed of a citizen armed force which shall undergo military training and serve as may be provided by law. Portugal had a long tradition in the use of militias for national defense. Between the 12th and 16th centuries, the municipal militias — composed of spearmen , pikemen , horsemen, slingers, javelineers, archers, crossbowmen and later arquebusiers — constituted the main component of the Portuguese Royal Army , together with smaller military forces from the King , the military orders and the feudal lords.

The Portuguese Army was then organized in three lines, with the 2nd and 3rd being militia forces. The 2nd line was made of the auxiliary troops, also militia units with the role of regional defense. In the end of the 18th century, the auxiliary troops were renamed "Militias". Still in the 19th century, the Militia units also had an important role in the Liberal Wars , with the majority of those troops fighting on the side of King Miguel.

Besides the regular militias, a number of volunteer militia units were formed to fight on both sides of the war. However, the National Guard revealed itself an ineffective and undisciplined force. Their units became highly politicized, being involved in a number of conspiracies and coups. The National Guard having less and less confidence from the authorities, became extinct in , terminating a long tradition of national militias in Portugal.

During the 20th century, some experiments with militia type forces were made. From to , the Portuguese Army was organized as a militia army. Also, in , the Estado Novo regime created the Portuguese Legion as a political volunteer militia, dedicated to the fight against the enemies of country and of the social order. From World War II, the Portuguese Legion assumed the responsibility for civil defense , this becoming its main role during the Cold War , until its extinction in Neither the Russian Empire , nor the Soviet Union ever had an organised force that could be equated to a militia. Instead a form of organisation that predated the Russian state was used during national emergencies called Narodnoe Opolcheniye People's Regimentation.

The Tsarist regime was particularly reluctant to arm and organise militia forces because of concern over a repetition of the Pugachev Serf Revolt of the late 18th century. Only in the face of the national emergency of was the raising of opolcheniye "cohorts" permitted. Numbering over ,, loosely trained and barely equipped, these enthusiastic volunteers nevertheless provided a useful reserve for the regular army. Although these spontaneously created popular forces had participated in several major wars of the Russian Empire, including in combat, they were not obligated to serve for more than one year, and notably departed for home during the campaign in Germany.

On only one occasion, during the military history of the Soviet Union , the Narodnoe Opolcheniye was incorporated into the regular forces of the Red Army , notably in Leningrad and Moscow. The term Militsiya in Russia and former Communist Bloc nations was specifically used to refer to the civilian police force , and should not be confused with the conventional western definition of militia. The term, as used in this context, dated from post-revolutionary Russia in late and was intended to draw a distinction between the new Soviet law enforcement agencies and the disbanded Tsarist police.

In some of these states militia was renamed back to police such as Ukraine while in the other states it remains such as Belarus. The first militias formed in Sri Lanka were by Lankan Kings, who raised militia armies for their military campaigns both within and outside the island. This was due to the reason that the Kings never maintained a standing army instead had a Royal Guard during peacetime and formed a militia in wartime. When the Portuguese who were the first colonial power to dominate the island raised local militias under the command of local leaders known as Mudaliyars. These militias took part in the many Portuguese campaigns against the Lankan Kings. The Dutch continued to employ these militias but due to their unreliability tended to favor employing Swiss and Malay mercenaries in their campaigns in the island.

The British Empire then ousted the Dutch from the coastal areas of the country, and sought to conquer the independent Kandyan Kingdom. In , the British became the first foreign power to raise a regular unit of Sinhalese with British officers, which was named the 2nd Ceylon Regiment, also known as the Sepoy Corps. It fought alongside British troops in the Kandyan wars.

After the Matale Rebellion led by Puran Appu in , in which a number of Sinhalese recruits defected to the side of the rebels, the recruitment of Sinhalese to the British forces was temporarily halted and the Ceylon Regiments disbanded. In , the Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers were raised as a militia, but soon became a military reserve force. This became the Ceylon Defence Force in and consisted of militia units. With the escalation of the Sri Lankan Civil War , local villagers under threat of attack were formed into localized militia to protect their families and homes. According to the LTTE's then head of police, the force was to be assigned to tasks such as rehabilitation, construction, forest conservation and agriculture, but would also be used to battle the Sri Lankan military if the need arose.

The Janjaweed militia consists of armed Arab Muslims fighting for the government in Khartoum against non-Arab Muslim "rebels". They are active in the Darfur region of western Sudan and also in eastern Chad. According to Human Rights Watch these partisans are responsible for abuses including war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing. As of , the Swedish Home Guard consists of 22, organized into 40 light infantry battalions of — Guardsmen.

These battalions are then organised into companies , usually one for every municipality. The main task of the battalions is to guard vital military and civilian installations throughout the country. In , the Rapid Response units numbered around 5, soldiers of the total of 42, As of , the majority of the force, 17, out of 22, soldiers will be in Rapid Response units. The decrease in number of troops comes with an equal increase in quality and modern equipment. These units are motorized and are ready to be mobilized more often, than other Home Guard units.

Rapid response units have more combat tasks compared to the rest of the Home Guard, including escort duties. Some battalions located near the coast also have marine companies equipped with Combat Boat A few battalions have recently set up 'specialized' companies to evaluate the possibility to add new abilities to the Home Guard. One of the best known and ancient militias is the Swiss Armed Forces. The " militia principle " of public duties is central to Swiss political culture and not limited to military issues.

For example, in most municipalities it is common to serve as a conscript fire fighter in the Compulsory Fire Department. Article It is primarily organised according to the principle of a militia. In , the number of soldiers was reduced to , including reservists, amounting to some 5. However, the Swiss Militia continues to consist of most of the adult male population with voluntary participation by women who are required to keep an assault rifle at home and to periodically engage in combat and marksmanship training.

The Syrian National Defense Force was formed out of pro-government militias. They receive their salaries and their military equipment from the government [84] [85] and as of numbers around , Unlike the Syrian Army , NDF soldiers are allowed to take loot from battlefields, which can then be sold on for extra money. The obligation to serve in the militia also known as the Constitutional Force in England derives from a common law tradition, and dates back to Anglo-Saxon times. The tradition was that all able-bodied males were liable to be called out to serve in one of two organisations. These were the posse comitatus , an ad hoc assembly called together by a law officer to apprehend lawbreakers, and the fyrd , [88] a military body intended to preserve internal order or defend the locality against an invader.

The latter developed into the militia, and was usually embodied by a royal warrant. With the decay of the feudal system and the military revolution of the 16th century, the militia began to become an important institution in English life. It was organised on the basis of the shire county , and was one of the responsibilities of the Lord Lieutenant , a royal official usually a trusted nobleman. Each of the county hundreds was likewise the responsibility of a Deputy Lieutenant , who relayed orders to the justices of the peace or magistrates. Every parish furnished a quota of eligible men, whose names were recorded on muster rolls. Likewise, each household was assessed for the purpose of finding weapons, armour, horses, or their financial equivalent, according to their status.

The militia was supposed to be mustered for training purposes from time to time, but this was rarely done. The militia regiments were consequently ill-prepared for an emergency, and could not be relied upon to serve outside their own counties. This state of affairs concerned many people. Consequently, an elite force was created, composed of members of the militia who were prepared to meet regularly for military training and exercise. These were formed into trained band regiments, particularly in the City of London , where the Artillery Ground was used for training.

The trained bands performed an important role in the English Civil War on the side of parliament, in marching to raise the siege of Gloucester 5 September Except for the London trained bands, both sides in the Civil War made little use of the militia, preferring to recruit their armies by other means. As successful English settlement of North America began to take place in in the face of the hostile intentions of the powerful Spanish, and of the native populations, it became immediately necessary to raise militia amongst the settlers. The militia in Jamestown saw constant action against the Powhatan Federation and other native polities. In the Virginia Company 's other outpost, Bermuda , fortification began immediately in A Spanish attack in was repulsed by two shots fired from the incomplete Castle Islands Fortifications manned by Bermudian Militiamen.

In the 17th Century, however, Bermuda's defence was left entirely in the hands of the Militia. In addition to requiring all male civilians to train and serve in the militia of their Parish, the Bermudian Militia included a standing body of trained artillerymen to garrison the numerous fortifications which ringed New London St. This standing body was created by recruiting volunteers, and by sentencing criminals to serve as punishment. The Bermudian militiamen were called out on numerous occasions of war, and, on one notable occasion, to quell rioting privateers. The Militia in Bermuda came to include a Troop of Horse mounted infantry and served alongside volunteers and from a small body of regulars.

This resulted from the build-up of the regular army Bermuda Garrison along with Bermuda's development as the headquarters and dockyard of the North America and West Indies Station of the Royal Navy , which made the militia seem excess to need. Vast sums of the Imperial defence expenditure were lavished on fortifying Bermuda during the Nineteenth Century and the British Government cajoled, implored, begged, and threatened the colonial legislature for 80 years before it raised a militia and volunteer units in and respectively. Although the militia had historically been an infantry force, many units in Britain had been re-tasked as militia artillery from the s onward due to the increased importance of the coastal artillery defences and the new militia unit in Bermuda followed suit.

Titled the Bermuda Militia Artillery , it was badged and uniformed as part of the Royal Artillery, and tasked with the garrison artillery role, manning coastal batteries. As in Britain, recruitment was of volunteers who engaged for terms of service, whereas the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps was organised on the same lines as volunteer rifle corps in Britain. Recruitment to the BVRC was restricted to whites, but the BMA recruited primarily coloured those who were not entirely of European heritage other ranks, though its officers were all white until In British India, a special class of militia was established in This took the form of the Frontier Corps , which consisted of locally recruited full-time auxiliaries under British officers.

Their role combined the functions of tribal police and border guards deployed along the North-West Frontier. After the Frontier Corps became part of the modern Pakistan Army. Until the Glorious Revolution in the Crown and Parliament were in strong disagreement. The English Civil War left a rather unusual military legacy. Both Whigs and Tories distrusted the creation of a large standing army not under civilian control. The former feared that it would be used as an instrument of royal tyranny. The latter had memories of the New Model Army and the anti-monarchical social and political revolution that it brought about.

Both preferred a small standing army under civilian control for defensive deterrence and to prosecute foreign wars, a large navy as the first line of national defence, and a militia composed of their neighbours as additional defence and to preserve domestic order. Consequently, the English Bill of Rights declared, amongst other things: "that the raising or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of Parliament, is against law The Crown still in the British constitution controls the use of the army. This ensures that officers and enlisted men swear an oath to a politically neutral head of state, and not to a politician. While the funding of the standing army subsists on annual financial votes by parliament, the Mutiny Act , superseded by the Army Act, and now the Armed Forces Act is also renewed on an annual basis by Parliament.

With the creation of the British Empire , militias were also raised in the colonies, where little support could be provided by regular forces. Overseas militias were first raised in Jamestown , Virginia , and in Bermuda , where the Bermuda Militia followed over the next two centuries a similar trajectory to that in Britain. The Scottish navy was incorporated into the Royal Navy.

The Scottish military as opposed to naval forces merged with the English, with pre-existing regular Scottish regiments maintaining their identities, though command of the new British Army was from England. How this affected militias either side of the border is unclear. The Militia Act of created a more professional force. Better records were kept, and the men were selected by ballot to serve for longer periods; specific provision was made for members of the Religious Society of Friends , Quakers , to be exempted, as conscientious objectors , from compulsory enlistment in the militia.

Proper uniforms and better weapons were provided, and the force was 'embodied' from time to time for training sessions. The militia was widely embodied at various times during the French and Napoleonic Wars. It served at several vulnerable locations, and was particularly stationed on the South Coast and in Ireland. A number of camps were held at Brighton , where the militia regiments were reviewed by the Prince Regent. This is the origin of the song "Brighton Camp". The militia could not be compelled to serve overseas, but it was seen as a training reserve for the army, as bounties were offered to men who opted to 'exchange' from the militia to the regular army.

The Parliament of Ireland passed an act in raising regiments of militia in each county and county corporate. Membership was restricted to Protestants between the ages of 16 and In , during the Napoleonic Wars , the Irish militia were reorganised to form thirty-seven county and city regiments. While officers of the reorganised force were Protestant, membership of the other ranks was now made available to members of all denominations. In the late 17th century, numerous individuals in the Kingdom of Scotland then in a personal union with the Kingdom of England called for the resurrection of a Scottish militia, with the understated aim of protecting the rights of Scots in Great Britain.

The traditional Scottish militia system continued, with only certain settlements in Scotland playing host to a militia regiment. This was viewed with resentment among some in Scotland, and the Militia Club was formed to promote the raising of a Scottish militia. The Militia Club, along with several other Scottish gentlemen's clubs became the crucible of the Scottish Enlightenment. The Militia Act of empowered Scottish Lord Lieutenants to raise and command militia regiments in each of the "Counties, Stewartries, Cities, and Places" under their jurisdiction. Although muster rolls were prepared as late as , the element of compulsion was abandoned, and the militia transformed into a volunteer force, revived by the Militia Act of It was intended to be seen as an alternative to the regular army.

Men would volunteer and undertake basic training for several months at an army depot. Thereafter, they would return to civilian life, but report for regular periods of military training usually on the weapons ranges and an annual two-week training camp. In return, they would receive military pay and a financial retainer, a useful addition to their civilian wage. Of course, many saw the annual camp as the equivalent of a paid holiday. The militia thus appealed to agricultural labourers, colliers and the like, men in casual occupations , who could leave their civilian job and pick it up again.

Until the militia were an entirely infantry force, but from that year a number of county infantry regiments were converted to artillery and new ones raised. In the militia of Anglesey and Monmouthshire were converted to engineers. Under the reforms , introduced by Secretary of State for War Hugh Childers in , the remaining militia infantry regiments were re-designated as numbered battalions of regiments of the line, ranking after the two regular battalions. Typically, an English, Welsh or Scottish regiment would have two militia battalions the 3rd and 4th and Irish regiments three numbered 3rd—5th. The militia must not be confused with the volunteer units created in a wave of enthusiasm in the second half of the nineteenth century.

In contrast with the Volunteer Force , and the similar Yeomanry Cavalry , they were considered rather plebeian. The militia was transformed into the Special Reserve by the military reforms of Haldane in the reforming post Liberal government. In the militia infantry battalions were redesignated as "reserve" and a number were amalgamated or disbanded. Numbered Territorial Force battalions, ranking after the Special Reserve, were formed from the volunteer units at the same time. Altogether, infantry battalions, 33 artillery regiments and two engineer regiments of special reservists were formed. The special reserve units remained in Britain throughout the First World War , but their rank and file did not, since the object of the special reserve was to supply drafts of replacements for the overseas units of the regiment.

The original militiamen soon disappeared, and the battalions simply became training units. The Special Reserve reverted to its militia designation in , then to Supplementary Reserve in , though the units were effectively placed in "suspended animation" until disbanded in The name was briefly revived in the Military Training Act , in the aftermath of the Munich Crisis.

Leslie Hore-Belisha , Secretary of State for War, wished to introduce a limited form of conscription , not known in peacetime Britain since the militia of the early 19th century and previously. It was thought that calling the conscripts 'militiamen' would make this more acceptable, as it would render them distinct from the rest of the army. Only single men aged 20 up to the day before their 22nd birthday were to be conscripted, for six months full-time training before discharge into the reserve with a free suit of civilian clothing.

Although the first intake was called up in late July , the declaration of war on 3 September entailed implementation of full-time conscription for all men aged 18—41, superseding the militia, never to be revived. Three units still maintain their militia designation in the British Army. Additionally, the Atholl Highlanders are a ceremonial infantry militia maintained by the Duke of Atholl —they are the only legal private army in Europe. Various other part-time, home defence organisations have been raised during times of crisis or perceived threat, although without the word "militia" in their title.

These have included:. The various non-state paramilitary groups involved in the 20th-century conflicts in Northern Ireland and the island of Ireland , such as the various Irish Republican Army groups and loyalist paramilitaries, could also be described as militias and are occasionally referred to as such. Created as a non-partisan force to defend Northern Ireland "against armed attack or sabotage", it eventually peaked at 11 battalions with 7, men and women. As a result of defence cuts it was eventually reduced to 7 battalions before being amalgamated with the Royal Irish Rangers in to form the "Home Service Battalions" of the Royal Irish Regiment.

The history of militia in the United States dates from the colonial era, such as in the American Revolutionary War. Because there was no standing English Army before the English Civil War , and subsequently the English Army and later the British Army had few regulars garrisoning North America, colonial militia served a vital role in local conflicts, particularly in the French and Indian Wars.

Before shooting began in the American War of Independence , American revolutionaries took control of the militia system, reinvigorating training and excluding men with Loyalist inclinations. The revolutionaries also created a full-time regular army—the Continental Army —but, because of manpower shortages, the militia provided short-term support to the regulars in the field throughout the war. In colonial era Anglo-American usage, militia service was distinguished from military service in that the latter was normally a commitment for a fixed period of time of at least a year, for a salary , whereas militia was only to meet a threat, or prepare to meet a threat, for periods of time expected to be short.

Militia persons were normally expected to provide their own weapons, equipment, or supplies, although they may later be compensated for losses or expenditures. With the Constitutional Convention of and Article 1 Section 8 of the United States Constitution , control of the army and the power to direct the militia of the states was concurrently delegated to the federal Congress. Proponents describe a key element in the concept of "militia" was that to be "genuine" it not be a "select militia", composed of an unrepresentative subset of the population. This was an argument presented in the ratification debates.

The first legislation on the subject was the Militia Act of which provided, in part:. That each and every free able-bodied white male citizen of the respective States, resident therein, who is or shall be of age of eighteen years, and under the age of forty-five years except as is herein after excepted shall severally and respectively be enrolled in the militia, Prior to the War of Independence, the officers of militia units were commissioned by the royal governors. During the war, they were commissioned either by the legislature or the chief executive of the state. After the war, commissions were typically granted by the state's chief executive.

Militias did not operate independently of the state governments but were under the command of the civil government just like the regular military forces. In addition, the Territory of Puerto Rico has a defense force. During the nineteenth century, each of the states maintained its militia differently, some more than others. Sometimes militia units were found to be unprepared, ill-supplied, and unwilling.

Formed in , Republican Party-affiliated Wide Awakes clubs were quick to take action to defend persons against southern slave-hunters. During Reconstruction after the Civil War, Republican state governments had militias composed almost entirely of freed slaves and populist whites. Their deployment to maintain order in the former Confederate states caused increased resentment among many Southern whites. Even more significant in terms of effect were private militias: paramilitary organizations that formed starting in , including the White League in Louisiana , which quickly formed chapters in other states; the Red Shirts in Mississippi in , and with force in [ clarification needed ] South Carolina and North Carolina ; and other "white line" militias and rifle clubs.

In contrast to the KKK, these paramilitary organizations were open; members were often well known in their communities. Nevertheless, they used force, intimidation, and violence, including murder, to push out Republican officeholders, break up organizing , and suppress freedmen 's voting and civil rights. The Militia Act of divided what had been the militia into what it termed the "organized" militia, created from portions of the former state guards to become state National Guard units, and the "unorganized" militia consisting of all males from ages 17 to 45, with the exception of certain officials and others, which is codified in 10 U.

Some states, such as Texas, California, and Ohio, created separate state defense forces for assistance in local emergencies. Congress later established [] a system of "dual enlistment" for the National Guard, so that anyone who enlisted in the National Guard also enlisted in the U. Under this construct, the defense act's "dual enlistment" facet was further amended so that enlisted soldiers and commissioned officers in the Army National Guard were also enlisted or commissioned in the Reserve Component of the U. Air Force. The 20th century saw the rise of militia organizations in the United States , these private militias often have an anti-government outlook and are not under the civil authority of the states.

Privately organized citizen militia-related groups blossomed in the mids. Many militia groups are based on religious or political extremism and some are regarded as hate groups. In the decision of the Supreme Court , in District of Columbia v. Heller , the de jure definition of "militia" as used in United States jurisprudence was discussed. The Court's opinion made explicit, in its obiter dicta , that the term "militia," as used in colonial times in this originalist decision, included both the federally organized militia and the citizen-organized militias of the several States : " Although the militia consists of all able-bodied men, the federally-organized militia may consist of a subset of them" The most important previous activity of the Texas Militia was the Texas Revolution in Texans declared independence from Mexico while they were defeated during the Battle of the Alamo , in March Following the war, some militia units reorganized into what was later to be known as the Texas Rangers , which was a private, volunteer effort for several years before becoming an official organization.

In Texas joined the other Confederate States in seceding from the Union , and Texas militias played a role in the American Civil War until it ended in Texas militiamen joined Theodore Roosevelt 's Rough Riders , a volunteer militia, and fought with him during the Spanish—American War in When a muster of the Militia proposed to train there on April 19, , they were threatened with arrest, even though the charter of San Pedro Park forbids exclusion of activities of that kind.

This threat led to a change in the meeting site. The militia organized in communes, wards and townships and is put under commune-level military commands. The term of service in the core militia is 4 years. The Non-Aligned Yugoslavia was concerned about eventual aggression from any of the superpowers , especially by the Warsaw Pact after the Prague Spring , so the Territorial Defense Forces were formed as an integral part of the total war military doctrine called Total National Defense. Those forces corresponded to military reserve forces , paramilitary or militia, the latter, in the military meaning of the term like military formation. It should not be confused with the Yugoslav Militia- Milicija which was a term for a police.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Force of non-professional soldiers. For other uses, see Militia disambiguation. For other uses, see Citizen Soldier disambiguation. Main article: Armenian irregular units. See also: Republikanischer Schutzbund and Heimwehr. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. July Learn how and when to remove this template message.

Further information: Brazilian police militias.

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