⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐ Summary Of Confucianism
Archived from the original on 7 July Geoff Haselhurst Summary Of Confucianism September, Summary Of Confucianism He also evinces open-mindedness by eschewing certainty, dogmatism, and Summary Of Confucianism in favor Summary Of Confucianism South Cache Uniforms which is desirable and productive Analects 7. Summary Of Confucianism the first three dynasties, the Zhou dynasty — bce is singled out by Confucius as embodying dao through Summary Of Confucianism cultural elements, such as the exemplary conduct of its rulers, institutions, and rituals Analects 9. He was virtuous, always ready to help Summary Of Confucianism and treated others with tolerance and honesty.
Who was Confucius? - Bryan W. Van Norden
Confucian education should be viewed as an open tradition that learns from all sources and evolves with changing times. Such a tradition fulfills the educational vision to appropriate and extend dao , thereby continuing the educational project started by Confucius. Confucianism comprises a rich tapestry of historical, political, philosophical and socio-cultural traditions that originated from Confucius Kong Fuzi — bce. A prominent theme in Confucianism is education.
Confucius himself devoted his whole life to teaching his disciples and persuading the political leaders of his time to enact his educational ideals. The intellectual tradition in education in Confucianism is exemplified in the Confucian canon known as the Four Books and Five Classics sishu wujing. Within the canon, two texts stand out for their exposition on teaching and learning: Analects Lunyu and Xueji Record of Learning. Analects , which is one of the Four Books, is a collection of the sayings and conduct of Confucius and his disciples. It was probably written during the Warring States period — bce or the Han dynasty bce — ce Di et al. By the time of Xueji , an educational system comprising schools in the villages and a national academy in the capital already existed.
Although Xueji was written specifically for students preparing for official positions, the educational principles discussed are applicable to all learners and reflect the essence of Confucian education. Drawing on Analects and Xueji , this essay introduces a Confucian conception of education in terms of its aim of education, curriculum, teaching approaches, and contemporary relevance. All the English translations of the Confucian texts cited in this article were done by the author, unless otherwise stated. Efforts have been taken to preserve the original meaning and word pattern as much as possible. The central place of education in Confucianism is stated in the opening passage of Xueji :.
If a ruler desires to transform the people [and] perfect [their] customs, [the ruler] can only do so through education! Xueji I. The context of the passage is about good political governance. Rather than merely relying on laws, able officials, or virtuous advisors—all good measures in themselves—the ruler should devote attention to educating the people.
The goal is to radically change the people by refining their conventional ways of thinking and doing. The reference to transformation and perfection in the above verse signifies that the scope is extensive, going beyond skills training and cognitive advancement to paradigm shift and character development. The actualization of this aim of education naturally requires a normative standard to guide the ruler in knowing whether and when the people have been transformed and their customs perfected. Dao was modeled and propagated by sage-kings such as Yao, Shun, and Yu of the first three dynasties of China Analects 8. Among the first three dynasties, the Zhou dynasty — bce is singled out by Confucius as embodying dao through its cultural elements, such as the exemplary conduct of its rulers, institutions, and rituals Analects 9.
Dao , while not lost and still accessible to all, is acquired through learning. Not only are human beings called to realize dao , they are also entrusted with the mission to extend it. But how do we know whether and when a person is realizing and broadening dao? According to Confucius, such a person aspires to do all things in accordance with li normative behaviors. Confucius underscores the pervasiveness of li as follows:. Do not look unless [it is in accordance with] li ; do not listen unless [it is in accordance with] li ; do not speak unless [it is in accordance with] li ; do not move unless [it is in accordance with] li.
Analects Li covers all normative human behaviors that stem from and are accompanied by desirable values, attitudes, and dispositions Tan, To realize and broaden dao is to think, feel, and act in accordance with li. Given that li concerns all aspects of human life, individuals need to constantly turn to the guiding discourse in dao to act normatively in specific problem-situations. Instances of li recorded in Analects include offering appropriate greeting 3.
Confucius advises rulers not to govern the people through harsh laws and punishment. In contrast, directing the people to adhere to li is more effective, as it transforms not just their conduct but also their value systems. The transformative power of li follows logically from its integration of praiseworthy values, attitudes, dispositions, and actions that originate from dao. When people know and desire to act in accordance with li , they will naturally discipline themselves and be ashamed once their behavior deviates from li. It is necessary, in order to further understand li , to introduce another cardinal Confucian concept: ren humanity or benevolence.
Ren defines the normativity of li in the sense that to observe li is to possess and demonstrate ren in all our thoughts, feelings, and actions Tan, Analects 3. Ren is the overarching and general quality that encompasses all virtues such as reverence, sincerity, empathy, tolerance, trustworthiness, diligence, and generosity see Analects Xueji is replete with references to different facets of ren such as respect, love, humility, and diligence. Putting together what we have learned from this section, the purpose of education is for learners to realize and broaden dao by internalizing and demonstrating ren -centered li at all times.
Only then can the ruler succeed in transforming the learners and perfecting their customs Xueji I. This means that the curriculum includes not just the contents to be studied but also all planned activities, programs, events, and functions that take place in a variety of learning sites. Following the aim of education to realize and broaden dao through embracing ren -centered li , a Confucian curriculum should be holistic, broad-based, and integrated.
A rounded education affirms a Confucian mandate for students to transcend theoretical knowledge of dao by appreciating and abiding in it. A junzi noble or exemplary person is the educational ideal for all human beings. This is because a scholar could be well versed yet deficient in virtuous character and conduct. What is needed, beyond knowledge acquisition, are the ren -centered motivation and disposition that are displayed through li. Confucius reiterates the deficiency of mere intellectual knowledge in another passage when he asks rhetorically,. Here Confucius is not claiming that memorizing the poems from Book of Songs which is one of the Five Classics is useless. Directed by ren , individuals are encouraged to reinforce and put into practice what they have learned through self-cultivation and social interaction.
Self-cultivation presupposes that the realization of dao depends ultimately on oneself. Going hand in hand with self-cultivation is social interaction through a variety of activities that take place both in and outside the classroom. What is envisioned are interdependent and mutually beneficial relationships among members of a community. Besides being holistic, the curriculum is also broad-based. Analects stresses the primacy of learning widely e.
A broad-based curriculum, therefore, introduces learners to varied defining aspects of Zhou culture, such as its literature, arts, and ceremonies. The above domains of learning or subjects are part of the six arts liuyi in ancient China that consist of rituals, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy or writing, and mathematics Tan, The third characteristic of a Confucian curriculum is its integrated nature. The six arts are not unrelated and discrete disciplines, nor are they taught theoretically without real-life application. Instead, the six arts are interconnected, mutually reinforcing, and practice-oriented, with ren -centered li infused into the total curriculum.
Confucius gives an example of the integration between archery and rituals:. The junzi are not competitive. If they must compete, it is in archery. We see in the above that even in sports, participants are expected to observe rituals that showcase the ren virtues of courtesy, deference, and sportsmanship. To facilitate the synthesis of subjects, the curriculum should be well-structured and progressive.
Xueji V outlines a nine-year program that systematically introduces students to a values-centered, rounded, and comprehensive curriculum. Students start by forming their learning aspirations and learning to analyze texts. They work toward achieving their learning aspirations by being reverentially committed to studying; they also learn collaboratively by being in and enjoying the company of others.
They continue to extend their learning and engage in discussions with their teachers and peers. They also build and maintain a close relationship with their teachers as well as make friends judiciously. In the final stage, students further broaden their learning by mastering different categories of knowledge and becoming proficient in learning without regression. Xueji XX illuminates the learning process by likening it to an apprentice spending hours on making a sieve before progressing to more complex tasks performed by a skillful bow-maker. A learner-centered education is privileged in Confucianism so that human beings can be equipped and empowered to realize and broaden dao.
The pedagogies, resources, activities, and learning environments are customized to produce junzi who are filled with ren and conduct themselves in accordance with li. This implies a teacher who makes a special effort to know the students well, particularly their mental and emotional states, which have a bearing on their learning. This is because early and frequent assessments would only create anxiety in the students and distract them from studying leisurely according to their personal aspirations Xueji VI.
Confucius was initially concerned that his disciple Yanhui was slow in learning, as the latter did not show overt signs of comprehending his teaching. This approach enables the teacher to encourage and guide students instead of spoon-feeding or indoctrinating them. The teacher should also inspire students to go beyond learning the contents to developing the dispositions for learning. Confucius displays the enlightening approach as follows:. If [I] have raised one [corner] and [the person] does not come back with the other three [corners], [I] will not [teach that person] again.
Analects 7. Confucius fosters contemplation and inferential thinking by providing the initial point of learning and expecting the students to make their own deductions and judgments. A person who learns without reflection will be perplexed, as such a person has not adequately understood what one has studied. On the other hand, a person who reflects without learning is vulnerable to danger, since such a person lacks the requisite knowledge that is gained through learning to shield oneself from mistakes. The teacher should therefore strike a balance between knowledge transmission and independent thinking. Such a balance is achieved by the teacher supplying the necessary facts and intellectual resources without stifling the students Tan, a.
It should be added that inviting learners to think for themselves does not mean that all conclusions drawn by students are acceptable or equally valid. A learner-centered Confucian education, including the enlightening approach, is premised on preparing learners to realize and broaden dao. Hence all the deliberations and judgments made by the students as well as teachers should be consistent with ren -centered li within the normative tradition of dao.
Xueji further elaborates on the enlightening approach by delineating two teaching strategies for teachers: the questioning technique and peer learning. First, teachers should stimulate student engagement by asking questions and prompting students to do likewise. This process is likened to a woodcutter who chops down a tree by first hewing away the easy parts before removing the knotty branches Xueji XIX. Xueji includes a caveat that although students are encouraged to ask questions, novice learners are dissuaded from doing so.
This instruction is predicated on the Confucian principles of structured and progressive learning mentioned earlier. Before jumping straight into critical discussions with their peers and teacher, novice learners should devote themselves first to acquiring the foundational knowledge. Otherwise, as cautioned by Confucius, they may shortchange their learning by being impatient and opting for quick results Analects Besides using the questioning technique, teachers should also facilitate active student participation through peer learning. Xueji XI proposes the strategy of xiangguan mutual observation , which refers to students learning from each other through pair or group work.
Confucian educational thought and practices have had far-reaching and lasting impact on China and other East Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan, and Singapore. Despite variations among them, these cultures share the following primary pedagogic patterns: a premium placed on education, high social status of and respect for teachers, student attention and discipline in class, a firm grasp of foundational knowledge, and repeated practice Tan, b , c.
The Confucian accent on memorization with understanding, reflection, inferential thinking, theory-practice nexus, and peer learning support deep learning, higher-order thinking, lifelong learning, and collaboration—competencies needed by knowledge workers in the 21st century Tan, a , b. The seriousness with which East Asians view education, coupled with the high standards of teaching and learning in Confucian Heritage Cultures, has arguably contributed to the impressive performance of these students in international large-scale assessments. Against a backdrop of contemporary education being increasingly determined by neoliberal agendas, Confucian beliefs in values inculcation and social interdependence are particularly salient for policymakers and educators.
The global educational landscape is saturated with the trends of marketization of education, performativity, and global educational governance by international bodies such as the Organisation for Economic and Cooperation and Development OECD. A ramification of neo-liberalism in education is the marginalization of moral and civic education where the development of ethical and communal values is neglected. This state of affairs is unfortunate, as education should not just be about what a person knows and is able to do, but also, and more importantly, about who that person is and should become.
The process of values inculcation necessarily involves the community, since morality originates from and is kept alive by shared standards, social behaviors, logics and ends among members. It is here that a Confucian worldview of education is helpful in shifting our focus from utilitarian, performative, and individualistic concerns to ethical, non-quantifiable, and communitarian goods such as moral self-cultivation, social interdependence, and love for humanity. Notwithstanding the before-mentioned merits of a Confucian conception of education, a key question is whether such a framework is able to nurture critical and creative thinkers who are empowered to critique prevailing worldviews and effect social changes.
So is Confucian education inimical to the development of critical and creative thinking in students? Critical thinking, interpreted broadly as skillful, reflective, and responsible thinking that facilitates judgment is an integral component of Confucian education. We have already noted in Analects that reflection si is inseparable from learning xue and that Confucius expects his students to draw their own inferences. A social critic and reformer, Confucius critiques the prevailing worldviews and norms, castigates rulers of his time for violating li and modifies certain social practices to align them with dao see Analects 3.
As in the case for critical thinking, creative thinking, understood generally as novel changes or interpretations of experiences, actions, and events, is acknowledged and cherished in Confucian education. The broadening of dao entails not a rigid adherence to conventions and norms but a creative interpretation and appropriation of symbolic resources and ideals for particular problem-situations. Confucius ingeniously borrowed and redefined terms that were in wide circulation, such as li and junzi , by adding novel elements to them. The concept of li was expanded by Confucius from a narrow meaning of ritual propriety to comprise all normative behaviors that are accompanied by corresponding values, attitudes, and dispositions.
A vessel in ancient China is a receptacle used in ceremonial rituals for specific functions and occasions. A junzi is not a vessel in the sense that such a person is not confined to one function or a fixed way of thinking. It follows that Confucian learners, in order to behave in accordance with li , must interpret experiences, respond to events, and construct personal meanings thoughtfully and inventively Tan, c. His claim that he is a transmitter of dao does not imply that he views dao as complete and cast in stone. On the contrary, he contributes considerably to the normative tradition of dao by propagating not just the culture of the Zhou dynasty but also selected values and practices from the Xia and Yin dynasties Analects It follows that critical and creative thinking should be extended to dao itself, where learners reflect on their prior conception of dao and purposefully co-construct a better vision of human excellence and guiding discourse for their fellow human beings.
To engender and buttress a culture that nurtures critical and creative thinking, it is imperative for policymakers, scholars, and educators to approach Confucian education as an open tradition. Such a tradition interacts with other traditions, learns from all sources, and adapts to changing times. By inviting its adherents to critique their own social norms, presuppositions and way of life as well as consider alternatives and better ideas, the normative tradition of dao is extended and refined. He also evinces open-mindedness by eschewing certainty, dogmatism, and inflexibility in favor of that which is desirable and productive Analects 7. Liberation from suffering may come by training the mind and acting according to the laws of karma cause and effect i.
This teaching is known as the Four Noble Truths :. Dukkha : Suffering is everywhere Samudaya : There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or misplaced desire tanha rooted in ignorance. Nirodha : There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana the possibility of liberation exists for everyone. Maggo : There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path right view, right thought, right speech, right conduct, right vocation, right effort, right attention and right concentration. I will teach you the Truth and the Path leading to the Truth. It is proper for you to doubt.. O Brahmana, it is just like a mountain river, flowing far and swift, taking everything along with it; there is no moment, no instant, no second when it stops flowing, but it goes on flowing and continuing.
So Brahmana, is human life, like a mountain river. To speak no ill will, to do no harm, to practice self-restraint according to the fundamental precepts, to be moderate in eating, to live in seclusion, to devote oneself to higher consciousness, this is the Teaching of the Buddhas. By endeavour, diligence, discipline and self-mastery, let the wise person make of himself an island that no flood can overwhelm. All mental states have mind as their forerunner, mind is their chief, and they are mind-made. If one speaks or acts with a defiled mind, then suffering follows..
Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world; it is appeased by love. This is an eternal Law. Hard to restrain, unstable is this mind; it flits wherever it lists. Good is it to control the mind. A controlled mind brings happiness. This is the Path to Purity. Buddhism recognizes that humans have a measure of freedom of moral choice, and Buddhist practice has essentially to do with acquiring the freedom to choose as one ought to choose with truth: that is of acquiring a freedom from the passions and desires that impel us to distraction and poor decisions.
Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught. Buddhism stands unique in the history of human thought in denying the existence of such a Soul, Self, or Atman. It is the source of all the troubles in the world from personal conflicts to wars between nations. The theory of karma is the theory of cause and effect, of action and reaction; it is a natural law, which has nothing to do with the idea of justice or reward and punishment. Every volitional action produces its effects or results. If a good action produces good effects, it is not justice, or reward, meted out by anybody or any power sitting in judgement of your action, but this is in virtue of its own nature, its own law. For the first time in the history of the world, Buddhism proclaimed a salvation which each individual could gain from him or herself, in this world, during this life, without any least reference to God, or to gods either great or small.
Aldous Huxley. The first collection of Indian philosophy that was written down was the Vedas. The word 'Veda' comes from the Sanskrit vid, meaning knowledge - the Vedas are 'sacred knowledge'. Their exact date is controversial, it is possible that the knowledge dates back 10, years BC, and were first written around 3, BC. The metaphysical foundation of Hinduism, which is expressed in both the Vedas and the Upanishads is that Reality Brahman is One or Absolute, changeless, perfect and eternal.
The ordinary human world of many separate and discrete finite things which our mind represents by our senses is an illusion. Through meditation and purity of mind, one can experience their true Self which is Brahman, God, the One infinite eternal thing which causes and connects the many things. True enlightenment is Self-realisation, to experience the supreme reality as Self. OM Asato ma sadgamaya, tamaso ma jyotirgamaya, mrityor mamritam gamaya " OM Lead me from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality.
Though One, Brahman is the cause of the many. Brahman is the unborn aja in whom all existing things abide. The One manifests as the many, the formless putting on forms. Rig Veda. Behold but One in all things; it is the second that leads you astray. The word Brahman means growth and is suggestive of life, motion, progress. Hindu cosmology is non-dualistic.
Everything that is is Brahman. Brahman is the eternal Now, and in eternity there is no before or after, for everything is everywhere, always. To use the words of Pascal 'it is a circle the center of which is everywhere and the circumference nowhere. D , In Indian philosophy, the main terms used by Hindus and Buddhists have dynamic connotations. The word Brahman is derived from the Sanskrit root brih - to grow- and thus suggests a reality which is dynamic and alive.
The Upanishads refer to Brahman as 'this unformed, immortal, moving', thus associating it with motion even though it transcends all forms. This word comes from the root ri- to move. In its phenomenal aspect, the cosmic One is thus intrinsically dynamic, and the apprehension of its dynamic nature is basic to all schools of Eastern mysticism. They all emphasize that the universe has to be grasped dynamically, as it moves, vibrates and dances. The Eastern mystics see the universe as an inseparable web, whose interconnections are dynamic and not static. The cosmic web is alive; it moves and grows and changes continually.
Fritjof Capra , In Hinduism, Shiva the Cosmic Dancer, is perhaps the most perfect personification of the dynamic universe. Through his dance, Shiva sustains the manifold phenomena in the world, unifying all things by immersing them in his rhythm and making them participate in the dance - a magnificent image of the dynamic unity of the Universe. Capra , The Tao of Physics. There is a thing, formless yet complete. Before heaven and earth it existed. Without sound, without substance, it stands alone and unchanging. It is all-pervading and unfailing. We do not know its name, but we call it Tao.
Being one with nature, the sage is in accord with the Tao. Lao Tzu. In B. Taoism was adopted as a state religion of China, with Lao Tzu so called founder of Taoism honoured as a deity. Lao Tzu was a contemporary of Confucius and wrote a book called the Tao te Ching, composed some time between the sixth and third centuries B. Some people believe Lao Tzu is a mythical character. State support of Taoism ended in with the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty and much Taoist heritage was destroyed.
Tao pronounced 'Dao' can be defined as ' path ', or ' road '. The way of the Tao is the way of Nature and of ultimate reality. Tao is often described as a force that flows through all life. A happy and virtuous life is one that is in harmony with the Tao, with Nature. Tao, Nature, Reality are One. One may think of it as the mother of all beneath Heaven. Deep and still, it seems to have existed forever. It may go left or right. All things depend on it for life, and it does not turn away from them.
It accomplishes its tasks, but does not claim credit for it. It clothes and feeds all things, but does not claim to be master over them. Always without desires, it may be called the Small. All things come to it and it does not master them; it may be called The Great. Being in accord with the Tao, he is everlasting. Confucianism is an ethical and philosophical system based upon the teachings of the Chinese sage, Confucius. Confucius was a famous thinker and social philosopher of China, whose teachings have deeply influenced East Asia for centuries. Living in the Spring and Autumn period a time when feudal states fought against each other , he was convinced of his ability to restore the world's order, though failed.
After much travelling around China to promote his ideas among rulers, he eventually became involved in teaching disciples. His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, and justice and sincerity. Used since then as the imperial orthodoxy, Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a vast and complete philosophical system known in the west as Confucianism. The Analects is a short collection of his discussions with disciples, compiled posthumously. These contain an overview of his teachings. Confucius presents himself as a transmitter who invented nothing and his greatest emphasis may be on study, the Chinese character that opens the book. In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master.
Far from trying to build a systematic theory of life and society, he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world.
In Chinamany people are prepared Summary Of Confucianism do things for the good of society. They feel a strong sense of Born The Hard Way Analysis. These would Summary Of Confucianism rulers devoted to Summary Of Confucianism people, striving for personal Summary Of Confucianism social perfectionand Summary Of Confucianism a Summary Of Confucianism would Summary Of Confucianism his Summary Of Confucianism virtues to the people instead of imposing proper Summary Of Confucianism with laws and rules. In making this point, Glaucon also highlights an Summary Of Confucianism underpinning for this Summary Of Confucianism, namely the idea that people are largely Summary Of Confucianism motivated. Hall, D. It Summary Of Confucianism a short, intense dynasty, with great conquests Summary Of Confucianism achievements Summary Of Confucianism, such as the Grand Canal and the rebuilding of the Great Wall.