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It also often means there is competition for the best egg-laying sites. Elaborate courtship behaviour is usual among guarders. Guarding males keep the embryos safe from predators, keep oxygen levels high by fanning water currents, and keep the area free from dead embryos and debris. They protect the embryos until they hatch, and often look after the larval stages as well. The time spent guarding can range from a few days to several months. Some guarders build nests nest spawners and some do not substrate spawners , though the difference between the two groups can be small. Baby paradise fish just hatched, gathered under the surface of a bubble nest. Anemone fish nest in an anemone. Here a male is protecting spawn produced by his partner.
Bearers are fish that carry their embryos and sometimes their young around with them, either externally or internally. Mouth brooders - carry eggs or larvae in their mouth. Mouth brooders can be ovophiles or larvophiles. Ovophile or egg-loving mouth-brooders lay their eggs in a pit, which are sucked up into the mouth of the female. The small number of large eggs hatch in the mother's mouth, and the fry remain there for a period of time.
Fertilization often occurs with the help of egg-spots, which are colorful spots on the anal fin of the male. When the female sees these spots, she tries to pick up the egg-spots, but instead gets sperm that fertilizes the eggs in her mouth. Many cichlids and some labyrinth fish are ovophile mouthbrooders. Larvophile or larvae-loving mouth-brooders lay their eggs on a substrate and guard them until the eggs hatch. After hatching, the female picks up the fry and keeps them in her mouth. When the fry can fend for themselves, they are released. Some eartheaters are larvophile mouthbrooders. The beginning of the evolutionary process of livebearing starts with facultative optional internal bearing. The process occurs in several species of oviparous egg-laying killifishes which spawn in the normal way on the substrate, but in the process accidentally fertilize eggs which the female retains and does not spawn.
These eggs are spawned later, usually without allowing much time for embryonic development. The next step in the evolution of livebearing is obligate by necessity internal bearing, where the female retains all the embryos. This situation, also referred to as ovoviviparity , is characteristic of marine rock fishes and the Lake Baikal sculpins. This strategy allows these fish to have fecundities approaching those of pelagic fish with external fertilization, but it also enables them to protect the young during their most vulnerable stage of development.
By contrast, sharks and rays using this strategy produce a relatively small number of embryos and retain them for a few weeks to 16 months or longer. The shorter times spans are characteristic of species that eventually deposit their embryos in the environment, surrounded by a horny capsule; whereas the longer periods are characteristic of sharks that retain the embryos until they are ready to emerge as actively swimming young. However, some fish do not fit these categories.
The livebearing largespring gambusia Gambusia geiseri was thought to be ovoviviparous until it was shown in that the embryos received nutrients from the mother. Spawning grounds are the areas of water where aquatic animals spawn, or produce their eggs. After spawning, the spawn may or may not drift to new grounds which become their nursery grounds. Many species undertake migrations each year, and sometimes great migrations, to reach their spawning grounds.
For example, lakes and river watersheds can be major spawning grounds for anadromous fish such as salmon. These days, it is often necessary to construct fish ladders and other bypass systems so salmon can navigate their way past hydroelectric dams or other obstructions such as weirs on their way to spawning grounds. Short-finned eels can travel anything up to three or four thousand kilometres to their spawning ground in deep water somewhere in the Coral Sea. Forage fish often make great migrations between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds.
Schools of a particular stock usually travel in a triangle between these grounds. For example, one stock of herrings have their spawning ground in southern Norway , their feeding ground in Iceland , and their nursery ground in northern Norway. Wide triangular journeys such as these may be important because forage fish, when feeding, cannot distinguish their own offspring. Capelin are a forage fish of the smelt family found in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In summer, they graze on dense swarms of plankton at the edge of the ice shelf.
Larger capelin also eat krill and other crustaceans. The capelin move inshore in large schools to spawn and migrate in spring and summer to feed in plankton rich areas between Iceland , Greenland , and Jan Mayen. The migration is affected by ocean currents. Around Iceland maturing capelin make large northward feeding migrations in spring and summer. The return migration takes place in September to November. The spawning migration starts north of Iceland in December or January. The diagram on the right shows the main spawning grounds and larval drift routes.
Capelin on the way to feeding grounds is coloured green, capelin on the way back is blue, and the breeding grounds are red. Referred to as "the greatest shoal on earth", the sardine run occurs when millions of sardines migrate from their spawning grounds south of the southern tip of Africa northward along the Eastern Cape coastline. Chinook salmon make the longest freshwater migration of any salmon, over 3, kilometres 1, mi up the Yukon River to spawning grounds upstream of Whitehorse , Yukon. Some green sea turtles swim more than 2, kilometres 1, mi to reach their spawning grounds. Goldfish , like all cyprinids , are egg-layers. They usually start breeding after a significant temperature change, often in spring. Males chase females, prompting them to release their eggs by bumping and nudging them.
As the female goldfish spawns her eggs, the male goldfish stays close behind fertilizing them. Their eggs are adhesive and attach to aquatic vegetation. The eggs hatch within 48 to 72 hours. Within a week or so, the fry begins to assume its final shape, although a year may pass before they develop a mature goldfish colour; until then they are a metallic brown like their wild ancestors. In their first weeks of life, the fry grow quickly—an adaptation born of the high risk of getting devoured by the adult goldfish.
A member of the Cyprinidae, carp spawn in times between April and August, largely dependent upon the climate and conditions they live in. Oxygen levels of the water, availability of food, size of each fish, age, number of times the fish has spawned before and water temperature are all factors known to effect when and how many eggs each carp will spawn at any one time. Prior to spawning, male Siamese fighting fish build bubble nests of varying sizes at the surface of the water. When a male becomes interested in a female, he will flare his gills, twist his body, and spread his fins. The female darkens in colour and curves her body back and forth.
The act of spawning takes place in a "nuptial embrace" where the male wraps his body around the female, each embrace resulting in the release of eggs until the female is out of eggs. The male, from his side, releases milt into the water and fertilization takes place externally. During and after spawning, the male uses his mouth to retrieve sinking eggs and deposit them in the bubble nest during mating the female sometimes assists her partner, but more often she will simply devour all the eggs that she manages to catch. Once the female has released all of her eggs, she is chased away from the male's territory, as it is likely that she'll eat the eggs due to hunger.
He keeps them in the bubble nest, making sure none fall to the bottom and repairing the nest as needed. Incubation lasts for 24—36 hours, and the newly hatched larvae remain in the nest for the next 2—3 days, until their yolk sacs are fully absorbed. Afterwards the fry leave the nest and the free-swimming stage begins. Siamese fighting fish build bubble nests of varying sizes. One-day-old Siamese fighting fish larvae in a bubble nest - their yolk sacs have not yet been absorbed. Copepods are tiny crustaceans which usually reproduce either by broadcast spawning or by sac spawning. Broadcasting copepods scatter their eggs into the water, but sac spawners lay their eggs into an ovigerous sac.
Sac spawners spawn few but relatively large eggs that develop slowly. By contrast, broadcast spawners spawn numerous small eggs that develop rapidly. To produce a given number of hatched eggs, broadcasters must spawn more eggs than sac spawners. After mating, the fertilized eggs of the California spiny lobster are carried on the female's pleopods until they hatch, with between , and , carried by a single female. The eggs are ready to hatch after 10 weeks, [50] and spawning takes place from May to August. Instead, they are flat, transparent animals around 14 mm 0. Egg-bearing female lobsters migrate inshore from deeper waters to hatch their eggs, though they do not have specific spawning grounds. Oysters are broadcast spawners , that is, eggs and sperm are released into open water where fertilisation occurs.
They are protandric ; during their first year they spawn as males by releasing sperm into the water. As they grow over the next two or three years and develop greater energy reserves, they spawn as females by releasing eggs. Bay oysters usually spawn by the end of June. An increase in water temperature prompts a few oysters to spawn. This triggers spawning in the rest, clouding the water with millions of eggs and sperm.
A single female oyster can produce up to million eggs annually. The eggs become fertilized in the water and develop rapidly into planktonic larvae. Attached oyster larvae are called spat. Spat are oysters less than 25 millimetres 0. The Pacific oyster usually has separate sexes. Their sex can be determined by examining the gonads , and it can change from year to year, normally during the winter months. In certain environmental conditions, one sex is favoured over the other. Protandry is favoured in areas of high food abundance and protogyny occurs in areas of low food abundance. In habitats with a high food supply, the sex ratio in the adult population tends to favour females, and areas with low food abundances tend to have a larger proportion of male adults.
This species is very fecund , with females releasing about 50— million eggs in regular intervals at a rate of 5—10 times a minute in a single spawning. Once released from the gonads, the eggs move through the suprabranchial chambers gills , are then pushed through the gill ostia into the mantle chamber, and are finally released in the water, forming a small cloud. In males, the sperm is released at the opposite end of the oyster, along with the normal exhalent stream of water. The larvae move through the water column via the use of a larval foot to find suitable settlement locations.
They can spend several weeks at this phase, which is dependent on water temperature, salinity and food supply. Over these weeks, larvae can disperse great distances by water currents before they metamorphose and settle as small spat. Similar to other oyster species, once the Pacific oyster larvae find a suitable habitat, they attach to it permanently using cement secreted from a gland in their foot. After settlement, the larvae metamorphose into juvenile spat. The growth rate is very rapid in optimum environmental conditions, and market size can be achieved in 18 to 30 months. Cephalopods , such as squid and octopuses, have prominent heads and a set of arms tentacles modified from the primitive foot of molluscs.
All cephalopods are sexually dimorphic. However, they lack external sexual characteristics, so they use colour communication. A courting male approaches a likely looking mate flashing his brightest colours, often in rippling displays. If the other cephalopod is female and receptive, her skin will change colour to become pale, and mating will occur. If the other cephalopod remains brightly coloured, it is taken as a warning. All cephalopods reproduce by spawning eggs.
Most cephalopods use semi-internal fertilization where the male places his gametes inside the female's mantle cavity to fertilize the ova in the female's single ovary. That in turn is used to transfer the spermatophores to the female. In species where the hectocotylus is missing, the "penis" is long and able to extend beyond the mantle cavity and transfers the spermatophores directly to the female. In many cephalopods, mating occurs head to head and the male may simply transfer sperm to the female. Others may detach the sperm-carrying arm and leave it attached to the female. Deep water squid have the greatest known penis length relative to body size of all mobile animals, second in the entire animal kingdom only to certain sessile barnacles.
Penis elongation in the greater hooked squid may result in a penis that is as long as the mantle, head and arms combined. Some species brood their fertilized eggs: female paper nautilus construct shelters for the young, while Gonatiid squid carry a larva-laden membrane from the hooks on their arms. Mostly the eggs are left to their own devices; many squid lay sausage-like bunches of eggs in crevices or occasionally on the sea floor.
Cuttlefish lay eggs separately in cases and attach them to coral or algal fronds. Cephalopods usually live fast and die young. Most of the energy extracted from their food is used for growing, and they mature rapidly to their adult size. Most live for one to two years, reproducing and then dying shortly thereafter. Echinoderms are marine animals, widespread in all oceans, but not found in fresh water. Just below their skin is an endoskeleton composed of calcareous plates or ossicles. Sea urchins are spiky echinoderms with spherical bodies which usually contain five gonads.
They move slowly, feed mostly on seaweed , and are important for the diet of sea otters. Sea urchins are dioecious , having separate male and female sexes, although there is generally no easy way to distinguish the two. The gonads are lined with muscles underneath the peritoneum , and these allow the animal to squeeze its gametes through the duct and into the surrounding sea water, where fertilization takes place.
Sea cucumbers are leathery echinoderms with elongated bodies which contain a single, branched gonad. They are found on the sea floor worldwide, and occur in great numbers on the deep sea floor where they often make up the majority of the animal biomass. Like sea urchins, most sea cucumbers reproduce by releasing sperm and ova into the ocean water. Depending on conditions, one organism can produce thousands of gametes.
Sea cucumbers are typically dioecious , with separate male and female individuals. The reproductive system consists of a single gonad , consisting of a cluster of tubules emptying into a single duct that opens on the upper surface of the animal, close to the tentacles. The fertilised egg develops in a pouch on the adult's body and eventually hatches as a juvenile sea cucumber. The remaining species develop their eggs into a free-swimming larva , usually after about three days of development.
This larva swims by means of a long band of cilia wrapped around its body. As the larva grows it transforms into a barrel-shaped body with three to five separate rings of cilia. The tentacles are usually the first adult features to appear, before the regular tube feet. Amphibians have successfully solved most of the problems associated with exposure to air. But their reproductive system was and is linked to water, and it remains very fishlike. Almost all amphibians spawn in water and lay a great number of small eggs that hatch quickly into swimming larvae.
The eggs do not need any complex protection against drying, because if the environment dries, the larvae are doomed as well as the eggs. Thus selection has acted to encourage the selection of suitable sites for laying eggs, rather than suitable devices for protecting eggs. Both fishes and amphibians may migrate long distances for spawning, and favoured sites are often disputed vigorously. Amphibians are found in and around fresh water lakes and ponds, but not in marine environments. Examples are frogs and toads, salamanders , newts and caecilians which resemble snakes.
They are cold-blooded animals that metamorphose from a juvenile water-breathing form, usually to an adult air-breathing form, though mudpuppies retain juvenile gills in adulthood. Female frogs and toads usually spawn gelatinous egg masses containing thousands of eggs in water. Different species lay eggs in distinctive and identifiable ways. For example, the American toad lays long strings of eggs. The eggs are highly vulnerable to predation , so frogs have evolved many techniques to ensure the survival of the next generation.
In colder areas the embryo is black to absorb more heat from the sun, which speeds up development. Most commonly, this involves synchronous reproduction. Many individuals will breed at the same time, overwhelming the actions of predators; the majority of the offspring will still die due to predation, but there is a greater chance some will survive. Another way in which some species avoid predators and the pathogens eggs are exposed to in ponds is to lay eggs on leaves above the pond, with a gelatinous coating designed to retain moisture. In these species the tadpoles drop into the water upon hatching. The eggs of some species laid out of water can detect vibrations of nearby predatory wasps or snakes, and will hatch early to avoid being eaten.
Goldfish have one of the most studied senses of vision in fishes. The ability to distinguish between four different primary colors classifies them as tetrachromats. Goldfish have one of the most studied senses of hearing in fish. Goldfish can only grow to sexual maturity with enough water and the right nutrition. Most goldfish breed in captivity, particularly in pond settings. Breeding usually happens after a significant temperature change, often in spring. Males chase gravid female goldfish females carrying eggs , and prompt them to release their eggs by bumping and nudging them. Goldfish, like all cyprinids , are egg-layers. Their eggs are adhesive and attach to aquatic vegetation, typically dense plants such as Cabomba or Elodea or a spawning mop.
The eggs hatch within 48 to 72 hours. Within a week or so, the fry begins to assume its final shape, although a year may pass before they develop a mature goldfish color; until then they are a metallic brown like their wild ancestors. In their first weeks of life, the fry grow quickly—an adaptation born of the high risk of getting devoured by the adult goldfish or other fish and insects in their environment. Some highly selectively bred goldfish can no longer breed naturally due to their altered shape.
The artificial breeding method called "hand stripping" can assist nature, but can harm the fish if not done correctly. In captivity, adults may also eat young that they encounter. Breeding goldfish by the hobbyist is the process of selecting adult fish to reproduce, allowing them to reproduce and then raising the resulting offspring while continually removing fish that do not approach the desired pedigree. Goldfish are able to survive short periods of entirely anoxic conditions. Survival is shorter under higher temperatures, suggesting that this is a cold weather adaptation. Researchers speculate that this is specifically an adaptation to survival in frozen water bodies over winter. Energy is obtained from liver glycogen. This process depends upon a pyruvate decarboxylase - the first known in vertebrates.
Although they are a freshwater fish, goldfish have been found in brackish water with a salinity of Goldfish are gregarious, displaying schooling behavior, as well as displaying the same types of feeding behaviors. Goldfish may display similar behaviors when responding to their reflections in a mirror. Goldfish have learned behaviors, both as groups and as individuals, that stem from native carp behavior.
They are a generalist species with varied feeding, breeding, and predator avoidance behaviors that contribute to their success. As fish, they can be described as "friendly" towards each other. Very rarely does a goldfish harm another goldfish, nor do the males harm the females during breeding. The only real threat that goldfish present to each other is competing for food. Commons , comets , and other faster varieties can easily eat all the food during a feeding before fancy varieties can reach it.
This can lead to stunted growth or possible starvation of fancier varieties when they are kept in a pond with their single-tailed brethren. As a result, care should be taken to combine only breeds with similar body type and swim characteristics. Goldfish have strong associative learning abilities, as well as social learning skills. In addition, their visual acuity allows them to distinguish between individual humans. Owners may notice that fish react favorably to them swimming to the front of the glass, swimming rapidly around the tank, and going to the surface mouthing for food while hiding when other people approach the tank. Over time, goldfish learn to associate their owners and other humans with food, often "begging" for food whenever their owners approach.
Goldfish that have constant visual contact with humans also stop considering them to be a threat. After being kept in a tank for several weeks, sometimes months, it becomes possible to feed a goldfish by hand without it shying away. Goldfish have a memory-span of at least three months and can distinguish between different shapes, colors, and sounds. As with many other examples of animal fancy , selective breeding of goldfish over centuries has produced several color variations, some of them far removed from the " golden " color of the original fish. There are also different body shapes, and fin and eye configurations. Some extreme versions of the goldfish live only in aquariums —they are much less hardy than varieties closer to the "wild" original.
However, some variations are hardier, such as the Shubunkin. Currently, there are about breeds recognized in China. Chinese tradition classifies goldfish into four main types. Like most species in the carp family, goldfish produce a large amount of waste both in their feces and through their gills , releasing harmful chemicals into the water. Build-up of this waste to toxic levels can occur in a relatively short period of time, and can easily cause a goldfish's death. For common and comet varieties, each goldfish should have about 20 US gallons 76 l; 17 imp gal of water. Fancy goldfish which are smaller should have about 10 US gallons 38 l; 8. The water surface area determines how much oxygen diffuses and dissolves into the water.
A general rule is have 1 square foot 0. Active aeration by way of a water pump , filter or fountain effectively increases the surface area. The goldfish is classified as a coldwater fish , and can live in unheated aquaria at a temperature comfortable for humans. However, rapid changes in temperature for example in an office building in winter when the heat is turned off at night can kill them, especially if the tank is small. Care must also be taken when adding water, as the new water may be of a different temperature. However, higher temperatures may help fight protozoan infestations by accelerating the parasite 's life-cycle—thus eliminating it more quickly. Like all fish, goldfish do not like to be petted. In fact, touching a goldfish can endanger its health, because it can cause the protective slime coat to be damaged or removed, exposing the fish's skin to infection from bacteria or water-born parasites.
However, goldfish respond to people by surfacing at feeding time, and can be trained or acclimated to taking pellets or flakes from human fingers. The reputation of goldfish dying quickly is often due to poor care. If left in the dark for a period of time, goldfish gradually change color until they are almost gray. Fish have cells called chromatophores that produce pigments which reflect light, and give the fish coloration. The color of a goldfish is determined by which pigments are in the cells, how many pigment molecules there are, and whether the pigment is grouped inside the cell or is spaced throughout the cytoplasm.
Because goldfish eat live plants, their presence in a planted aquarium can be problematic. Only a few aquarium plant species for example Cryptocoryne and Anubias can survive around goldfish, but they require special attention so that they are not uprooted. Plastic plants are more durable. Goldfish are popular pond fish, since they are small, inexpensive, colorful and very hardy. In an outdoor pond or water garden , they may even survive for brief periods if ice forms on the surface, as long as there is enough oxygen remaining in the water and the pond does not freeze solid. Common, London and Bristol shubunkins, jikin, wakin, comet and some hardier fantail goldfish can be kept in a pond all year round in temperate and subtropical climates.
Moor, veiltail, oranda and lionhead can be kept safely in outdoor ponds year-round only in more tropical climates and only in summer elsewhere. Compatible fish include rudd , tench , orfe and koi , but the last require specialized care. Ramshorn snails are helpful by eating any algae that grows in the pond. Without some form of animal population control , goldfish ponds can easily become overstocked.
Fish such as orfe consume goldfish eggs. Ponds small and large are fine in warmer areas although it ought to be noted that goldfish can "overheat" in small volumes of water in the summer in tropical climates. In frosty climes, the depth should be at least 80 centimeters 31 in to preclude freezing. During winter, goldfish become sluggish, stop eating and often stay on the bottom of the pond.
This is normal; they become active again in the spring. Unless the pond is large enough to maintain its own ecosystem without interference from humans, a filter is important to clear waste and keep the pond clean. Plants are essential as they act as part of the filtration system, as well as a food source for the fish. Plants are further beneficial since they raise oxygen levels in the water. Like their wild ancestors, common and comet goldfish as well as shubunkin can survive, and even thrive, in any climate that can support a pond, whereas fancy goldfish are unlikely to survive in the wild as their bright colors and long fins make them easy prey.
In the wild, the diet of goldfish consists of crustaceans , insects , and various plant matter. Like most fish, they are opportunistic feeders and do not stop eating on their own accord. Overfeeding can be deleterious to their health, typically by blocking the intestines. This happens most often with selectively bred goldfish, which have a convoluted intestinal tract. When excess food is available, they produce more waste and feces , partly due to incomplete protein digestion. Overfeeding can sometimes be diagnosed by observing feces trailing from the fish's cloaca.
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